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Sports and US Foreign Relations Introduction Modern sports developed in the mid-1800s, with organizations to establish rules and maintain order following shortly thereafter. As athletes in different countries sought to test their skills against each other, the need for international bodies to oversee sport arose, leading to the creation of international federations for individual sports. Coinciding with the sense of internationalism that pervaded the late 19th century , Baron Pierre de Coubertin sought to revive the ancient Olympic Games with modern sports, calling

legislation prohibited discrimination based on sex in education and school sports and helped to increase the number of sport of opportunities for girls and women in high school and college. 84 But major inequities remain, including the lack of coverage of women’s sports in the media, a decrease in women coaches and managers, and low quality reporting on women’s sports. Black and Latina athletes remain generally underrepresented in most sports programs. 85 Although they are underrepresented in the sports landscape, Latinas are making their presence known in college softball

, the sports world offered a path towards legitimacy and the safety of a legal endeavor. This commingling of business endeavors also spoke to the relationship between the rise of popular sports and the growth of gambling as mass entertainment in the 20th century. Bookmakers, Sports Gambling, and the Revival of Horse Racing While the numbers game spread through the working-class neighborhoods of the Northern cities, bookmaking also flourished, as horse racing revived, and as team sports grew in popularity. The relationship between gambling and sports ran strong

every four years since then, and include a Paralympics Opening Ceremony and Paralympics Closing Ceremony. 20 Many of the same Olympic Games events are included in the Paralympics—such as Alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, and biathlon for winter sports; and cycling, archery, and swimming for summer sports—although sports equipment for the Paralympics may be modified for specific disabilities. Adding to the plethora of games, the Special Olympics as an organization highlights the capabilities of people with intellectual disabilities in a local, national, and global

History Review 73, no. 2 (1999). 53. Samuel J. Brumbeloe and J. Emmett Winn, “WAPI and Sports Broadcasting at an Educational Radio Station in the 1920s,” in Transmitting the Past , ed. Winn and Brinson; Katherine O’Toole , “John L. Griffith and the Commercialization of Sports on Radio in the 1930s,” Journal of Sports History 40, no. 2 (2013); and James R. Walker , Crack of the Bat: A History of Baseball on the Radio (Lincoln, Nebraska, 2015). An excellent chapter on sports broadcasting is in Douglas, Listening In , 199–219. 54. Louis Carlott , “‘A Cleanser

Mexican youth for American spectacles.” 46 Rampant anti-Mexican racism during the Depression also hampered the growth of these schools. Clubs and Sports As a national pastime, baseball gained popularity amongst nonwhite youth before World War II and garnered wide support from ethnic communities. Although they were romoted by reformers and city officials as a tool to Americanize immigrant children, racially segregated sports created spaces that fostered ethnic identity, family values, and notions of proper masculinity. Monroy observes that baseball was a way that “various

the Politics of Image (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998). 36. Timothy B. Neary, Crossing Parish Boundaries: Race, Sports, and Catholic Youth in Chicago, 1914–1954 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016); Gerald R. Gems, The Windy City Wars: Labor, Leisure and Sport in the Making of Chicago (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1997); and Gerald R. Gems and Steven A. Reiss, The Chicago Sports Reader: 100 Years of Sports in the Windy City (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009). 37. Roger Biles, Big City Boss in Depression and War: Mayor

of the older generation. Declaring loyalty to a sports team or recording artist or movie star constituted for many a way of belonging and reduced a sense of alienation from mainstream cultural norms. 17 Familiarity with mass culture often had unexpected political ramifications in the early 20th century. One reason why the Congress of Industrial Organizations was able to organize basic industries in Chicago in the 1930s, particularly after the strikes of 1919 had failed, was that a shared culture rooted in sports and similar tastes in media allowed unity beyond

demeaning representations of Black sports figures and remade them into another avenue of Black accomplishment of which their readers could be proud. As America’s favorite pastime, reporting on baseball—probably more than any other sport—demonstrated the vital role that the Black press served in establishing a sports culture among African Americans. Black newspapers heavily covered the Negro baseball leagues, which were professional African American baseball teams that emerged out of Black men’s exclusion from the major leagues. Black sports writers not only reported on the

of Spanglish, offering historical, geographic, and contextual information. There are also particular dictionaries of Nuyorrican, Dominicanish, Cubonics, Chicano, Tex-Mex, and other varieties. And there are Spanglish dictionaries focused on specific realms: medicine, construction, sports, and so forth. The appearance of these lexicons emphasizes the moment in which Spanglish finds itself, transitioning from the merely oral realm to a written form. It is possible to interpret this transition as a symptom of standardization, at least at the level of vocabulary, since

Bob Geldof, and Bruce Springsteen. Under the title Artists United Against Apartheid , the “Sun City” single, video, and accompanying album, as well as a book and documentary about the making of the album, marked a unique collaboration across genres and generation In the realm of sports, African American tennis stars Arthur Ashe and John McEnroe, as well as others worked to pressure the apartheid regime. 36 The American antiapartheid movement contributed to the demise of apartheid in South Africa and, for a moment, elevated African American influence on US foreign

expected levels and in the end public investments proved crucial to filling in many of the cleared areas. A new campus for Sinclair Community College, a Montgomery County Courts Building, a crime lab, and public parking garages eventually stood where city leaders had originally dreamed of sports arenas and high-rise luxury housing. Dayton also participated in the Model Cities program, which focused more of its attention on the city’s West Side. The cancellation of that program in the early 1970s greatly strained municipal resources at the same time the city experienced a broader

trade sanctions, but the United States and Britain ensured that the Security Council enacted only a voluntary arms embargo, one that became mandatory after government repression of the Soweto uprising of 1976. Meanwhile the international anti-apartheid movement grew. Cultural and sports organizations shunned South Africa. Activists persuaded cities, churches, and universities to pull investments and targeted banks and corporations. The movement promoted solidarity with Black freedom movements in South Africa, which became increasingly assertive despite government

school test scores, rankings, and graduation and college acceptance rates. They joined and created school clubs to pad college applications. They also took community college courses on weekends and during summers. They even shifted the culture of high school sports, avoiding quintessential “All-American” sports like football and cheerleading to compete in badminton, tennis, and chess and debate teams. 75 Mission High in San Jose, California, reflected this shift. The school, which changed from majority-white “Little Scandinavia” in the 1970s to majority Asian in

of origin, and many did through a system of circular migration. For the duration of their time in the United States, they created social and cultural contexts and practices based on Mexican culture and the Spanish language. Spanish-language radio stations, theater, newspapers, and sports leagues all vied for the discretionary income of the new immigrants, much as they did in other immigrant communities throughout the nation. These communities created a “Mexico de afuera,” or a Mexico outside of Mexico, which offered workers the chance to remain engaged in activities

has long played a notable role in American popular culture. In sports-crazed America, Boston has been a rabid sports town since the 1870s and the founding of the city’s first professional baseball team, the Red Stockings. From 2002 to 2019 , the New England Patriots won six Super Bowls, the Boston Red Sox won four World Series, and the Boston Celtics and the Boston Bruins each won one championship. The Red Sox-New York Yankees rivalry is considered among the most intense in American professional sports. The Red Sox’s Fenway Park is a bona fide tourist attraction. Boston

Radzilowski, Zaragosa Vargas, Robert A. Rockaway, and Nabeel Abraham and Andrew Shryock offer substantial studies that focus on the process of immigration and the emergence of ethnic communities across Detroit. 53 Lastly, sports historians, such as Richard Bak and Patrick Harrigan, have undertaken studies involving athletes such as Joe Louis or sports franchises like the Detroit Tigers and placed them in the context of the history of Detroit. 54 Primary Sources An obvious starting point for primary data on the history of Detroit is the Burton Historical Collection at

business districts and poverty-stricken neighborhoods. 31 Camden repurposed its former industrial waterfront as a tourist destination with the opening of an aquarium in 1992. Despite evidence that sports stadiums rarely return on taxpayer investments, Pittsburgh, Baltimore, Milwaukee, and Allentown represent just a handful of cities that built expensive new sports facilities after 1970 , usually surrounded by massive parking lots to attract suburban fans. Meanwhile, the 1976 opening of Faneuil Hall Marketplace at the site of a historic market in Boston marked