Greek Literature

(4th cent. bce), of the *deme of Sphettus in Attica, a devoted follower of *Socrates, was present at his trial and death. He wrote speeches for the lawcourts and taught oratory, but fell into poverty and took refuge at the court in *Syracuse, returning to Athens after the expulsion of *Dionysius (2) II in 356. Best known as the author of Socratic dialogues which resemble *Xenophon (1)'s more than *Plato (1)'s, Aeschines was apparently not an original thinker, and his Socrates expounds common ethical views. Although only fragments survive today, seven dialogues were considered genuine in antiquity: Alcibiades, Axiochus, Aspasia, Callias, Miltiades, Rhinon, Telauges. The first of these was partly intended to defend Socrates against charges of corrupting the young *Alcibiades. The dialogues of Aeschines were highly esteemed for their style and their faithfulness to Socrates' character and conversational manner.

Chamaeleon, of *Heraclea (3) Pontica (c.350–after 281 bce), Greek *Peripatetic writer; almost no biographical details exist. He wrote works on *satyric drama and comedy, and studies of a number of early poets, including *Homer, *Pindar, and *Aeschylus. These works, which were anecdotal and uncritical, are often cited by *Athenaeus (1): their hallmark was the deduction of biographical data from references in comedy and from the writers’ own works, a technique already visible in the Aristotelian ‘Constitution of Athens’ (: see athēnaiōn politeia. Chamaeleon's philosophical writings, ‘On Drunkenness’, ‘On Pleasure’ (alternatively attributed to *Theophrastus), ‘On the Gods’, and his ‘Speech of Encouragement’ (Προτρεπτικός), also seem to have stood firmly in the Aristotelian tradition.

Tiberius Claudius Aristocles of *Pergamum (2nd cent. ce), was a Peripatetic philosopher turned sophist who also held the consulship. As sophist he studied under *Herodes Atticus, taught in Pergamum and performed throughout Italy and Asia Minor. His works included two rhetorical textbooks, letters, and declamations.

As one of the most ancient Greek papyri ever found (it dates back to the second half of the 4th century bce), and given the length of its extant part, the Derveni papyrus effectively represents the oldest “book” of Europe. It was found at Derveni, near Thessaloniki, in 1962, close to the rich tomb of a knight belonging to the army of Philip II or Alexander the Great. The volumen had been placed on the funeral pyre along with other offerings, and thanks to the process of semi-carbonisation it underwent, the upper half of the roll was preserved, maintaining a good degree of readability. The papyrus contains a philosophical-religious text, mostly in the form of an allegorical commentary on a theo-cosmogonical poem attributed to Orpheus. The first columns expound a religious and ritual discourse that deals with issues related to sacrifices, souls, daimones, retribution, cosmic justice, and divination. In the commentary (cols. VII–XXVI), the Orphic hexameters are systematically quoted and interpreted in terms of natural philosophy of a Presocratic brand. The mythical narrative of the succession of the gods, as well as of the origin of the cosmos, is thus matched by a cosmological and physical account, which is equally related to the origin and the functioning of the universe, and is sustained by a theologised conception of nature.

Dio Cocceianus, later surnamed Chrysostom (c.40/50-110/120 ce), Greek orator, writer, local politician and moralist, pursued a double career, as member of the governing elite of his home town of Prusa (Bithynia), and as public speaker and intellectual in pursuit of an international reputation. His oratorical ability took him at a relatively young age to the fringes of the Imperial court, where his contacts included the future Emperor Nerva. Under Domitian, another connection earned him a sentence of exile from Italy and Bithynia that was not rescinded until Nerva's accession in late 96. After his recall, Dio re-established himself at Prusa, and as an international speaker, making appearances in Tarsus and at Olympia, as well as in the cities of Bithynia. Pliny's letters to Trajan (Epp. 10.81-2) show him still engaged in local wrangles in 109/10. How close a relationship with Trajan he himself enjoyed in his later career is debatable.