Search Results

Sign in Modify your search

Perform this search in

Narrow Your Choices

Availability

Subject

 401-420 of 496 Results  for:

  • Greek History and Historiography x
Clear all

Article

Philomelus  

C. J. Tuplin

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
Philomelus, son of Theotimus, of Ledon persuaded *Phocis to challenge Amphictionic control of *Delphi (see amphictiony). Elected *stratēgosautokrator (commander with full powers) and with Athenian and Spartan support, he hired mercenaries, recruited Phocian *peltasts and seized Delphi in a bloody coup (summer 356).

Article

Philon (5), of Byblos, scholar of Phoenician history, b. c. 70 CE and d. c. 160 CE  

Martin Goodman

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography

Philon (5) of Byblo (RE, ‘Herennius 2’), scholar, born c. CE 70 and died c. CE 160, composed in Greek a learned work on *Phoenician history, providing a markedly euhemeristic account (see euhemerus) of Phoenician religion. Extensive fragments of this history were preserved by *Eusebius in his Praeparatio evangelica 1. 9. 22 ff. Philon's claim to have translated much of his material directly from the ancient writer Sanchuniathon, who had devoted a treatise in the Phoenician language to theology, cosmogony, and the origins of civilization, should be regarded with considerable scepticism, since Philon's versions of the ancient myths have clearly been moulded to conform to Hellenistic expectations. On the other hand, similarities between the stories ascribed by Philon to Sanchuniathon and the evidence for Phoenician myths discovered in *Ugaritic texts demonstrate that some of the material used by Philon may derive from genuine Phoenician traditions, which have, however, been modified over the intervening centuries.

Article

Philopoemen, c. 253–182 BCE  

R. M. Errington

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
Son of Craugis of *Megalopolis, statesman and general of the *Achaean Confederacy, called ‘the last of the Greeks' by an anonymous Roman. Philopoemen's first known activity dates from the 220s, when he helped defend Megalopolis against *Cleomenes (2) III (223) and impressed *Antigonus (3) III Doson at the battle of Sellasia. He subsequently spent ten years in Crete as mercenary captain, perhaps serving Macedonian interests. During the First Macedonian War as hipparch (cavalry commander) of the Confederacy (209) and twice strategos (chief magistrate and general: 208/7 and 206/5) he defeated and killed the Spartan ruler Machanidas at Mantinea (207); see mantinea, battles of. Under *Nabis Sparta continued to trouble the Peloponnese. Philopoemen campaigned against him both as volunteer (202/1) and as strategos (201/299) and, after six more years in Crete, again as strategos (193/2) when, after Nabis' murder by the *Aetolians, he united Sparta with the Confederacy, against *Flamininus’ wishes.

Article

Philotas, d. 330 BCE  

Albert Brian Bosworth

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography

Philotas (d. 330 BCE), Macedonian noble, son of *Parmenion and commander of the Companion cavalry during the early campaigns of *Alexander (3) the Great. After a career of distinction, in which he fought in all the major actions, he came to grief sensationally late in 330, when he was accused of complicity in a court conspiracy, condemned by the Macedonian army, and executed after interrogation under torture. The details are mysterious, but nothing was proved against him other than failure to pass on information about the conspiracy. He was already under suspicion, victim of a covert investigation, and the conspiracy gave Alexander's younger marshals the opportunity to eradicate the influence of Parmenion.

Article

Phocion, 402/401–318 BCE  

R. M. Errington

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
Phocion (402/1–318 BCE), son of Phocus, Athenian statesman and general, pupil of *Plato (1) and friend of *Xenocrates (1), called ‘the Good’. No Athenian was *stratēgos more often than Phocion's 45 times between 371 and 318. An incorruptible independent political thinker with basically conservative views, he served with *Chabrias and was probably attached to *Callistratus (2) and *Eubulus (2). He opposed *Demosthenes (2)'s agitation against Macedonia throughout, probably on grounds of practicability. This attitude did not prevent his pursuing Athenian interests as strategos: he led military action in *Euboea in 348 and 341, at *Megara (perhaps 342) and at *Byzantium (340/39, here against *Philip (1) II). After *Chaeronea and again in 335 he negotiated milder treatment for Athens from the Macedonian kings. The same attitude characterised his stance in the *Lamian War (322): he opposed the war, but did his duty as strategos in defending Attica and was chief negotiator with the victorious *Antipater (1).

Article

Phormion (1), Athenian admiral  

Victor Ehrenberg and Simon Hornblower

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
Phormion (1), Athenian admiral, *stratēgos of the *phylē Pandionis (this is not certain), first mentioned in 440 bce before *Samos. In the next years he proved an excellent military leader in *Acarnania (see RO 77 for a ?connected Acarnanian Phormion, 338/7 bce), at *Potidaea, and in *Chalcidice. In 430 he blockaded *Corinth from *Naupactus; and next summer, by brilliant tactics, he defeated two superior Peloponnesian fleets, thus restoring Athenian influence in Acarnania. After his return (428), he is said to have been sentenced for peculation (FGrH 324 F 8). Probably he died at this time. (See the commentaries of Rhodes and Hornblower on Thuc. 2. 103 and 3. 7.)BibliographyThucydides bks.

Article

Phryne  

Melissa Funke

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
21 December 2022
Subjects:
  1. Gender Studies
  2. Greek History and Historiography

Phryne, a Boeotian hetaira, was active in Athens in the mid-to-late 4th century bce. Said to have been born in Thespiae (Ath. 13.591c) and originally named Mnesarete, she took the name Phryne from a nickname given due to her sallow complexion (Plut. De Pyth. or. 401b). Along with several other famous hetairai of the time, she is mentioned in several comedies produced at Athens during her lifetime (Anaxilas Nottis fr. 22; Timocles Orestautocleides fr. 27, and Neaira fr. 25). Narratives about her life associating her with prominent artists and philosophers from 4th-century Athens first became popular in Hellenistic collections of anecdotes influenced by Middle and New Comedy and then featured prominently in Imperial Greek literature. While most scholars acknowledge that Phryne was a real woman living in 4th-century Athens, the majority of the sources on her are Hellenistic and Imperial Greek, casting doubt on the historicity of the biographical details they preserve.

Article

Phylarchus  

Klaus Meister

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
Phylarchus from Athens or *Naucratis (T 1), Greek historian who lived in the 3rd cent. bce. He wrote Historiai covering the period from *Pyrrhus' death, 272, to the death of the Spartan king *Cleomenes (2) III in 220/19, thereby continuing *Hieronymus (1) of Cardia and *Duris (2) of Samos; he adopted Duris' tragic and sensational mode of presentation: cf. Polyb. 2. 56–63 = F 53–6. Phylarchus' partisanship of Cleomenes and his anti-Achaean bias were harshly criticized by *Polybius (1) (see above), himself not an admirer of the king, who denounces Phylarchus' arbitrary and erroneous reporting. His work included numerous digressions of all kinds: miraculous events (F 10, 17, 35), strange animal tales (F 4. 26–28. 38. 61), multifarious anecdotes (F 12, 31, 40, 41, 75), love affairs (F 21, 24, 30, 32, 70, 71, 81). Phylarchus' reliability cannot be rated very highly: despite Strasburger, Polybius' reproach of terateia (‘sensationalism’) is justified.

Article

Piraeus  

Robert Garland

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Ancient Geography
  2. Greek History and Historiography
  3. Greek Material Culture
Piraeus (Πειραιεύς), the great harbour complex of Athens, is a rocky limestone peninsula some 7 km. (4–5 mi.) south-west of Athens which *Themistocles began to fortify in 493/2 (Thuc. 1. 93. 3–7) as a strong base for Athens' rapidly expanding fleet in preference to the open roadstead of *Phaleron. It has three harbours, Zea (modern Pasalimani) and *Munichia (1) (Mikrolimani) on the east, used exclusively by naval shipping. Zea possessed 196 shipsheds and *Philon (1)'s Arsenal. The biggest harbour, Kantharos (Goblet) or Megas Limen (Great Harbour), lies to the west and accommodated, in addition to warships, a thriving emporium on its northern and eastern shoreline comprising ‘five stoas round about the harbour’ (schol. to Ar.Pax145), of which some traces remain. Its urban development dates to c.450 bce when *Hippodamus of Miletus ‘cut up (κατέτεμεν) Piraeus’ by laying it out according to an orthogonal plan (Arist.

Article

Pisistratus  

Rosalind Thomas

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
30 July 2015
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
Pisistratus (Πεισίστρατος), tyrant of Athens (see tyranny), claimed descent from the Neleids (see neleus) of *Pylos and Pisistratus, archon (see archontes) at Athens 669/8 bce. He first came to prominence through his success in the war against *Megara (c.565). In a period of aristocratic faction between Lycurgus and the Pedieis (party ‘of the Plain’) and *Megacles and Paralioi (coast party), he created a third faction, the Hyperakrioi or Diakrioi (referring to ‘hill country’, probably NE *Attica: the factions probably reflect regional bases of support, Hdt. 1. 59). He first seized power with the bodyguard granted him by the Athenians (c.560). Ousted by the other two factions, he returned again with Megacles' allegiance and, if we can extract anything from the ruse in *Herodotus (1) (1. 60), a claim to the protection of *Athena.

Article

Pixodarus  

Simon Hornblower

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography

Son of *Hecatomnus and youngest brother of *Mausolus, was *satrap (see mausolus) of *Caria341–336 bce, after ousting his sister *Ada; he tried to attach himself by marriage to the Macedonian royal house, a curious episode (Plut. Alex. 10). After 336 he shared the satrapal rule with a Persian by blood, Orontobates, until *Alexander (3) III the Great's arrival (see ada). An important trilingual inscription from 337, in Greek, *Lycian, and *Aramaic, was published in 1974, and the Aramaic text calls Pixodarus ‘satrap in Caria and *Lycia’, not just Caria (RO 78 for the Greek text; for the position earlier in the 4th cent. See pericles(2) of Limyra). This inscription, and ILabraunda no. 42 (cf. Syll. 3 311: Mausolus), are interesting as showing that Pixodarus gave local Carian and Lycian communities a say in running their own affairs.

Article

Plataea, battle of, 479 BCE  

John F. Lazenby

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
The battle, which finally put paid to *Xerxes' attempt to conquer Greece (see persian wars), falls into three stages. In the first, the Greeks, commanded by the Spartan, *Pausanias (1), clung to the lower slopes of Cithaeron (the mountain range which separates this part of *Boeotia from *Attica), and fought off the Persian cavalry, killing its commander. This encouraged them to move down towards the river Asopus, where water-supplies were better, but exposed them to continuous harassment by Persian cavalry, eventually leading to their being denied access to the Asopus, and the choking up of the Gargaphia spring (now Retsi?). A planned night withdrawal then went disastrously wrong, leaving the Athenians isolated on the left, the Lacedaemonians (*Spartans) and Tegeates (see tegea) on the right, and the centre just outside Plataea itself. This perhaps tempted the Persian commander, *Mardonius, to order a general attack, but his Asiatic troops were decisively beaten by the Spartans and their comrades, and his Boeotian allies by the Athenians.

Article

Plataea, oath of  

Antony Spawforth

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography

Fourth-cent. bce Athens knew an anti-Persian oath sworn by the Greek allies before the battle of Plataea (see preceding article), preserved in three similar versions (Lycurg.Leocr. 81; Diod. Sic. 11. 29. 3; and an inscription from *Acharnae, RO 88, variously re-interpreted recently as an oath of Spartan origin or (Krentz) an Athenian oath before the battle of *Marathon. *Theopompus (3) (FGrH 115 F 153) denounced the Plataean oath as an Athenian invention, although there is a linguistic case for authenticity (Siewert), saving the undertaking not to rebuild sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians. This clause is sometimes invoked (none the less) to explain an apparent Athenian tardiness in repairing ruined temples after 479. See persian-wars tradition.

Article

polis  

Oswyn Murray

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
06 July 2015
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
  2. Greek Law
Polis (pl. poleis), the Greek city-state. The polis is the characteristic form of Greek urban life; its main features are small size, political *autonomy, social homogeneity, sense of community and respect for law. It can be contrasted with the earlier Mycenaean palace economy (see mycenaean civilization), and with the continuing existence of tribal (ethnos) types of organization in many areas of northern Greece. (See ethnicity. For a different sense of ‘tribe’ see below.) The polis arose in the late Dark Ages. It is present in *Homer; the archaeological signs of city development (public space, temples, walls, public works, town planning) appear in an increasing number of sites in the 8th–7th cents. (Old *Smyrna, *Eretria); the peaceful abandonment of smaller sites and the general decline of archaeological evidence from the countryside in the 7th cent. suggest early *synoecism or concentration of population in specific polis sites.

Article

Polyaenus (2), Macedonian rhetorician  

Brian Campbell

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
  2. Roman History and Historiography
Polyaenus (2), a Macedonian rhetorician, dedicated his collection of Strategemata (stratagems) in eight books to Marcus *Aurelius and Lucius *Verus. It is wide-ranging, including exploits by gods, heroes, and famous women, and uses excerpts from earlier collections; some entries are historically valuable, others fictitious. However, the underlying theme is didactic, to expound the methods of protecting an army and overcoming the enemy, and along with traditional clichés of military life, he recounts stratagems employed by historical Greek commanders, with some examples from Roman history, notably *Hannibal, *Caesar, and *Augustus. Polyaenus even claims a practical purpose, to assist the emperors in the Parthian war (ce 162–6): ‘You consider it part of the art of winning victories to study the ways by which commanders in the past triumphed.’BibliographyTextPolyaenus.

Article

Polybius (1), Greek historian, c. 200–c. 118 BCE  

Emma Nicholson

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
  2. Greek Literature
Polybius was a Greek historian who documented Rome’s rise to power in the Mediterranean in the 3rd and 2nd centuries bce. Originally a leading figure of the Achaean League, he was deported to Rome after the defeat of Perseus of Macedon in 168 bce and became closely attached to Scipio Aemilianus, forming part of the so-called Scipionic Circle. While in Rome he began to write his Histories, a vast forty-book historical account of the middle-Hellenistic world and Rome’s establishment of dominion over the Mediterranean. Unfortunately, only the first five books remain complete; the rest are preserved in varying degrees of fragmentation. The Histories are the earliest surviving “universal” history and interweave events in the different geographical areas of the Mediterranean to demonstrate the increasing interconnectedness of world affairs.The Histories are described by Polybius as pragmatikos, concerned with political and military affairs, and have a strong didactic and moral tendency aimed at current and future leaders. The work intends not only to explain what happened in the Mediterranean and why, but also to train its readers to navigate a political and military career as successfully as possible and to bear the reversals of fortune with courage. As a historian, Polybius was characterized by his deep concern for the truthfulness of his narrative, his careful consultation of documents and witnesses, his efforts to apply reason and correct judgement, his focus on human character and action, and his elucidation of cause and effect. While not immune from political bias, Polybius adheres rigorously to his principles throughout the Histories and often criticizes other historians for their lack of accuracy, judgment, or objectivity.

Article

Polycrates (1), tyrant of Samos  

Rosalind Thomas

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
Polycrates (1), tyrant (see tyranny) of *Samos, son of Aeaces, seized power c.535 bce, with his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson, but soon made himself tyrant. Almost unrivalled in magnificence (Hdt. 3. 125, 122), he made Samos a great naval power (see navies; sea power), subjected neighbouring islands (Hdt. 3. 39, 122; Thuc. 1. 13), including Rheneia near *Delos which he dedicated to *Apollo (Thuc. 1. 13; 3. 104). He formed a defensive alliance with Amasis, king of Egypt, but seems to have broken it off deliberately (contrast the moralizing tale of Polycrates' ring in Hdt. 3. 39 ff.) when *Cambyses tried to acquire Egypt, and supplied Samian ships. The Samians mutinied and went over to Sparta; *Sparta and *Corinth, apparently to prevent Polycrates medizing, tried to overthrow him, unsuccessfully (525 bce). He was lured to the mainland, c.

Article

Polyperchon  

Albert Brian Bosworth

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
Polyperchon, son of Simmias, Macedonian from Tymphaea (close to *Epirus, and on the east side of N. Pindus), campaigned with *Alexander (3) ‘the Great’. After *Issus (333 bce) he was given command of the Tymphaean battalion of the phalanx, which he retained until 324. Already of advanced years, he returned with the veterans demobilized at Opis (324). As *Craterus (1)'s second-in-command he acted as governor in Macedonia during the first coalition war (321–19), and was rewarded for his loyalty and military success with the regency, to which the dying *Antipater (1) appointed him over the head of *Cassander. In the war which ensued he encouraged democratic revolution at Athens (318), but was frustrated at Megalopolis and withdrew to Macedon. There he invoked the aid of *Olympias against the challenge from *Eurydice (2) but shared her unpopularity and lost his army—and Macedon—to Cassander (spring 316).

Article

postal service  

Nicholas Purcell

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
  2. Roman History and Historiography
The Greek poleis communicated by professional messengers (hemerodromoi, like *Phidippides, on land; there were also messenger-ships), but developed no other general infrastructure for communications. The Assyrian state (see assyria), however, with its developed and centralized requisitioning system, used relays of mounted couriers. These were the model for the efficient Persian arrangements (see royal road) which were maintained at the expense of local communities. From the first, the carrying of messages, the movement of goods due to the state, and the journeys of the ruler and his representatives were closely linked, and this is the system bequeathed by the *Achaemenid kingdom to the (*Diadochi) Successors of *Alexander (3) the Great, in *Syria and in Egypt, where the Ptolemies (see ptolemy(1)) developed it to a high level of complexity and dependability (here the duty to maintain the post was liturgical (see liturgy), like military service, though it could be commuted into a tax).

Article

prosopography  

Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
07 March 2016
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
  2. Reception
  3. Roman History and Historiography

Prosopography is a modern term for the study of individuals, and is derived from the Greek prosōpon, one meaning of which is ‘person’. There is no agreed or official definition of prosopography, which goes under different names in different disciplines (to the social scientist, prosopography in one of its manifestations is ‘multiple career-line analysis’: see L. Stone in bibliog. below). Prosopography, as used in ancient history, is a historical method which uses onomastic evidence (see names, personal, greek and roman) to establish (i) regional origins of individuals and (ii) family connections, esp. via marriage-ties but also via *adoption (which leaves traces on nomenclature), between individual and individual and between group and group. (See genos and gens for the basic large *kinship units; but ‘group’ theories of Roman politics, see below, presuppose units made up of more than one gens. Thus Scullard posited a ‘Fulvian-Claudian group’ in late 3rd cent. Rome, see various entries under Fulvius and Claudius.) Conclusions about the origins and family connections of individuals then classically lead to inferences about their likely political sympathies and allegiances.