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Aristodemus Malacus (2), 'the Effeminate'  

Tim Cornell

Aristodemus (2) Malacus (‘the Effeminate’), tyrant of *Cumae, 504–c.490 bce. An account of the career of this colourful tyrant in *Dionysius (7) of Halicarnassus (7. 3–11) derives, probably via *Timaeus (2) from local Cumaean sources, and is important because it refers to the defeat of the forces of Lars *Porsenna at *Aricia by the Latins and their Cumaean allies. It thus provides independent confirmation of a famous episode of the early Roman republic, and dates it to the first year of the 69th Olympiad ( = 504 bce). Aristodemus was a popular general (he had defeated a barbarian attack on Cumae in 524 bce) who led the Cumaean forces at *Aricia and then used his popularity to make himself tyrant. Later he gave refuge to the exiled Roman king *Tarquinius Superbus.

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Aristodemus (3), Greek historian  

Godfrey Louis Barber and Kenneth S. Sacks

Aristodemus (3), of unknown date (4th cent. ce ?), compiled a history of Greece which included at least the period 480–431 bce, perhaps as a handbook for students of rhetoric. Aristodemus drew on a pro-Athenian tradition and included *Ephorus among a variety of sources; but the work is inaccurate, lacking in chronology, and makes no significant addition to the historical evidence. The fragments suggest that its value was negligible.

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Aristogiton  

Rosalind Thomas

Aristogiton (Ἀριστογείτων), Athenian tyrannicide. He and Harmodius, both of the family of Gephyraei, provoked, according to *Thucydides (2), by amorous rivalry, plotted along with others to kill the tyrant *Hippias (1) at the Panathenaic festival of 514 bce (see panathenaea) and end the tyranny. The plot miscarried, only *Hipparchus (1) was killed, and the ‘tyrannicides’ were executed.After the expulsion of Hippias in 510 by Sparta and the *Alcmaeonids, the ‘tyrannicides’ were elevated as heroes. Bronze statues of them by *Antenor (2) were erected, probably quite early (Pliny, HN 34. 16–17, gives 510/9); carried off by *Xerxes in 480, they were replaced in 477/6 by a second group by *Critius and Nesiotes; the epigram inscribed on the base was composed by *Simonides (fr. 76 Diehl; SEG 10. 320). Their tomb was placed in the *Ceramicus; the *polemarchos sacrificed annually to them, and their descendants received free meals in the *prytaneion.

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Aristonicus (1), d. 128 BCE  

R. M. Errington

Aristonicus (1) (d. 128 bce), perhaps illegitimate son of *Eumenes (2) II of Pergamum, led an insurrection in *Asia Minor (133–129) after *Attalus III's death. He issued Attalid coins, ‘cistophori’ (‘basket-bearers’), which asserted his royal claim, motivated the Attalid fleet at Leucae near *Smyrna to support him, and gained successes at Colophon, *Samos, and Myndos before being defeated by the Ephesians. He then tried to mobilize lower classes, slaves and non-Greeks, whom he called ‘Heliopolitae’ (‘Sun-citizens’), according to *Strabo who attaches no significance to the name (14. 38. 1). Moderns have liked to imagine social-revolutionary motives unknown to the sources, but the mainspring was probably desperation after failing to mobilize the major cities. With these troops he captured Stratonicea in Mysia, Apollonis, and Thyateira; *Phocaea and Leucae remained loyal. When Roman troops arrived (131) he achieved some successes, even killing the consul P. Licinius Crassus, but was defeated by M.

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Aristophon, Athenian politician, c. 435–c. 335 BCE  

George Law Cawkwell

Aristophon (c. 435–c. 335 BCE) Athenian politician, whose activities, extending from 403/2 to the late 340s, brought him into opposition first to the party of *Callistratus (2) over relations with Thebes (1), and later to *Eubulus (1) over finance and, perhaps, foreign policy. He successfully prosecuted *Timotheus (2) for his part in the *Social War (1) (357–355).

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Arrian, c. 86–160 CE  

Albert Brian Bosworth

Born in *Nicomedia in *Bithynia, he held local office and pursued studies with *Epictetus, whose lectures he later published (allegedly verbatim) as the Discourses and summarized in the Encheiridion (‘Manual’). In Greece between 108 and 112 he attracted the friendship of *Hadrian, who later adlected him to senatorial rank (see adlection) and after his consulate (?129) employed him for six years (131–7) as legate of *Cappadocia. Subsequently he retired to Athens, where he held the archonship (145/6), and perhaps survived into the reign of *Marcus Aurelius.One of the most distinguished writers of his day, Arrian represented himself as a second *Xenophon (1) and adopted a style which fused elements of Xenophon into a composite, artificial (yet outstandingly lucid) diction based on the great masters, *Herodotus (1) and *Thucydides (2). The Cynegeticus is an explicit revision of Xenophon's monograph in the light of the revolution in *hunting brought by the Celtic greyhound; and Xenophon's influence is demonstrable in the short essays he wrote in Cappadocia: the Periplus (c.

Article

Arsinoë I, b. c. 300 BCE  

Dorothy J. Thompson

Arsinoë I (b. c. 300 bce), daughter of *Lysimachus, was married to *Ptolemy (1) II, perhaps in 285 bce when he became co-regent; they had three children: *Ptolemy (1) III, *Berenice (2) (who married the Seleucid king *Antiochus (2) II), and Lysimachus.

Article

Artaxerxes (5) V  

Simon Hornblower

Now that Arses is known to have taken the regnal name *Artaxerxes (4) IV (see E. Badian in Festschrift F. Schachermeyr (1977)) it follows that Bessus, satrap of *Bactria and pretender to the Persian throne after *Darius III's murder, was (self-styled) Artaxerxes V. See alexander (3) iii, the Great.

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Artemisia (1), ruler, early 5th cent. BCE  

Piero Treves and Simon Hornblower

Artemisia (1), early 5th-cent. bce ruler, under Persian suzerainty, over *Halicarnassus, *Cos, *Nisyrus, and *Calymnos: Herodotus 7. 99 mentioning her Cretan mother. In the *Persian Wars Artemisia accompanied Xerxes' expedition with five ships. According to the Halicarnassian *Herodotus she was a ‘warner’ figure, who unsuccessfully urged Xerxes not to fight at Salamis, but fought bravely and escaped by sinking a ship in her way. The ship was Calyndian (not Calymnian), from a place on the border between Caria and *Lycia. Xerxes remarked ‘my men have become women and my women men’ (Hdt. 8. 88). Afterwards she urged him to retreat and transported part of his family to *Ephesus (Hdt. 8. 101–3 with A. Bowie’s comm., 2007). Her son or nephew or grandson Lygdamis was still in power at Halicarnassus c.465–450 (ML 32 = Fornara 70).

Article

Artemisia (2)  

Simon Hornblower

Artemisia (2), daughter of *Hecatomnus, ruled *Caria with her full brother and incestuous husband *Mausolus (see incest) in the mid-4th cent. bce: RO no. 55, joint decree in Greek (‘it seemed good to Mausolus and Artemisia’) conferring *proxeny on *Cnossus in Crete. He certainly used the Persian title *satrap and she probably did too. At his death in 353 (when she succeeded him, ruling until 351) she was grief-stricken, supposedly drank his ashes (Gell. NA 10. 18), and organized a rhetorical funeral competition at which *Theodectes, *Theopompus (3) (the winner), and others performed; but the participant ‘Isocrates’ may not be the famous man. She held down Rhodes, already absorbed into the Hecatomnid sphere of influence by Mausolus, and was the target of *Demosthenes (2)'s speech 15 (351) ‘On the Freedom of the Rhodians’, urging an attack on Caria to free the Rhodian democrats. Like her satrapal brothers and sister (Mausolus, *Idrieus, *Pixodarus, *Ada) she spread *Hellenism in Caria, while retaining the native cultural element, in the generation before *Alexander (3) the Great.

Article

Artemisium, battle of, 480 BCE  

John F. Lazenby

Pevki bay near *Artemisium on *Euboea was probably the base of the Greek fleet during the three days of fighting which coincided with the battle of *Thermopylae. With fewer and slower ships, the Greeks nevertheless took the initiative for two days, though careful to fight towards evening so that they could break off if necessary. But on the third day, perhaps to coincide with the final assault on Thermopylae, the Persian fleet came out at midday, and although still technically the victors, the Greeks had so many ships damaged that they were already considering withdrawal when the news of what had happened at Thermopylae reached them. Though indecisive, Artemisium, as *Pindar said (Plut. Them. 8. 2), was where the Greeks ‘laid the shining foundation of freedom’. See persian wars.

Article

Artemon (3), 'the Historian', of Pergamum  

John Dewar Denniston, Kenneth Dover, and M. B. Trapp

Artemon (3), of Pergamum, also styled ‘the historian’, perhaps identical with *Artemon (2) of Cassandreia, Cassandreia being his birthplace, Pergamum the scene of his literary activity. He is mentioned several times in the scholia to Pindar for explanations of historical, geographical, and mythological problems.

Article

artillery  

Jonathan Coulston

Evidence for Greek and Roman artillery comes from the surviving technical treatises, incidental historical and subliterary references, and, most importantly, finds of both machine-fittings and projectiles. The latter at present date from the 2nd cent. bce to the 4th cent. ce.In 399 bce artificers of *Dionysius (1) I apparently invented the first artillery piece (Diod. Sic. 14. 42. 1). The gastraphetēs shot arrows only, and somewhat resembled an early medieval crossbow. Propulsion force was supplied by a composite bow, which, being too powerful for a man to draw by hand, was bent by means of a slide and stock. Later gastraphetai, some of which were stone-throwers, used a winch and had a stand. Torsion catapults appeared around 340 bce, possibly invented by *Philip (1) II's engineers. Stock, winch, and base remained much the same, but two springs, bundles of rope made from animal sinew and held at high tension in a metal-plated wooden frame, now provided propulsive power. Torsion machines improved continuously in efficiency through the Roman period. From c.

Article

Asclepiades (4), of Myrleia in Bithynia, Greek author, 1st cent. BCE  

Peter Barr Reid Forbes and Kenneth S. Sacks

Asclepiades (4), of Myrleia in *Bithynia (1st cent. bce), worked in Spain, and wrote on the history of Bithynia, and of scholarship; on *Homer and *Theocritus; and, as Atticist analogist, Περὶ ὀρθογραφίας, ‘On Orthography’. It is either he or the homonymous doctor (no. 3 above) whom *Sextus Empiricus quotes in the Adv.

Article

Aspasia  

Simon Hornblower

Aspasia, Milesian-born mistress of *Pericles (1) from c.445 bce when he divorced his wife. She is said to have taught rhetoric (Suda), and to have had discussions with *Socrates (Plut. Per. 24). She was the target of attacks and jokes in comedy because of her supposed influence over Pericles: Ar. Ach. 515 ff. blames her for the main *Peloponnesian War. The story that *Hermippus (1) the comic poet prosecuted her for impiety (Plut. Per. 32) probably rests on a misunderstanding of some passage in one of his comedies: it is not saved even by other traditions ‘circumstantially’ reporting Pericles' pathetic behaviour at the trial. Her (subsequently legitimated) son by Pericles, also a Pericles, was one of the generals put to death after *Arginusae. After Pericles' death in 429 Aspasia allegedly took up with another *demagogue, Lysicles, until he died in 428.

Article

Astronomical Diaries  

Kathryn Stevens

The Astronomical Diaries are Akkadian texts from Babylon which contain observations of astronomical phenomena and selected events on earth. They are written in the cuneiform script and preserved on several hundred clay tablets, most of which are today in the British Museum.

Very few of the tablets are complete, and some are in an extremely fragmentary state. Where no date formula survives, it is often possible to date them based on the astronomical observations recorded. The surviving tablets range in date from the mid-7th to the 1st century bce, but the vast majority date between 400 and 60 bce.

Diaries usually cover periods of four to six months, divided into monthly sections. Daily astronomical observations form the bulk of each section. At the end of each month, the Diaries report the river level of the Euphrates; the market exchange values of several commodities in Babylon, and sometimes selected historical events such as warfare, disease outbreaks, visits from kings or officials, and cultic activities. The Diaries contain no explicit indications of purpose, but since they exhibit significant parallelism with prognostic material, it is likely that they were connected to some extent with divination. There are also parallels in content and phrasing between the Diaries and the Late Babylonian Chronicles.

Article

Astyochus  

Stephen Hodkinson

Spartan admiral, 412/411 bce, blamed (perhaps unfairly, given difficult circumstances) by contemporaries and modern scholars for Sparta's early failures in the Ionian War (see peloponnesian war). Lacking adequate resources, he failed to sustain the revolt of *Lesbos. Following a quarrel he refused *Chios' requests for help; complaints from their *harmost Pedaritus prompted a commission to scrutinize him and share control of policy. His subsequent unwillingness to engage the Athenians without overwhelming superiority and inability to extract sufficient pay from *Tissaphernes caused serious grievance among his fleet and (probably unfounded) accusations of bribery.

Article

Athamanes  

Peter Sidney Derow

A tribal group inhabiting the area between the Arachthus and the western slopes of Pindus, notionally descended from *Athamas. After the end of the Epirote kingdom in the 230s bce, it seems, they developed an influential monarchy under Theodorus and *Amynander and continued as an independent koinon into the early 1st cent. bce.

Article

Athēnaiōn politeia  

P. J. Rhodes

*Aristotle is credited with works on the constitutions of 158 states: a papyrus containing all but the opening few pages of the Athenian constitution was acquired by the British Museum, and was published in 1891. About the first two thirds (chs. 1–41) give a history of the constitution to the restoration of the democracy after the regime of the Thirty (see thirty tyrants). This part derives from a mixture of sources, and is of uneven merit, but at its best it contains valuable information which does not survive in any other text. The remaining third (42–69) gives an extremely useful account of the working of the constitution in the author's time, and appears to be based on the laws of Athens and the author's own observation.There has been much argument as to the authorship of the work: it was regularly attributed in antiquity to Aristotle, and was written (in the 330s bce, with some revision in the 320s) when he was in Athens; there are some striking agreements between the Athēnaiōn politeia and Aristotle's Politics (e.

Article

Athens, History  

Simon Hornblower

Tradition held that *Theseus was responsible for the *Synoecism , in the political rather than physical sense, of the Athenian (Attic) state. More prosaically put, this would imply a unified kingdom, centred on Athens, in the late bronze age. But if there was any such kingdom it did not survive the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, and the synoecism is now generally put c.900bce, after a tumultuous period in which refugees from Attica settled in Ionia (see ionians ) from c.1050 bce onwards. Athenian imperial *Propaganda later exaggerated the organized character of this process, turning it into a movement of *Colonization which would justify the *Metropolis making hegemonical demands of the ‘daughter-cities’. Another later propaganda item was the myth of ‘autochthony’ (Attica had ‘always had the same inhabitants’). This was false, but useful for scoring off the *Dorian ‘newcomers’. See autochthons .The Attic countryside was settled from the centre in the 8th cent. by ‘internal colonization’: Athens was not among the first genuinely colonizing states. The early Attic state was aristocratic and politically hardly distinctive. There was nothing even embryonically democratic about the annual *archontes who began in 684/3 bce and were the chief officers of state: Thuc.