Roman History and Historiography

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Article

Bato (2), 'the Pannonian', leader of revolt in Illyricum, early 1st cent. CE  

Ronald Syme

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography

Bato (2), the Pannonian, like his Dalmatian namesake (above), revolted, tried to capture *Sirmium (6 ce), and shared in the subsequent fighting, but surrendered in 8 ce at the river Bathinus. Soon after, however, his namesake captured and killed him.

Article

Belgae  

Martin Millett

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
According to *Caesar, a population-group of this name occupied lands to the north of the Seine and Marne. They were the fiercest inhabitants of Gaul and boasted of their German blood (cf. Strabo 4. 196). Certain tribes, he says, had settled in *Britain, and Belgae are located there by Ptolemy (4). The Gallic Belgae were subdued by Caesar in 57 bce, but continued to give trouble for 30 years more. The archaeology of the province of Gallia Belgica shows little uniformity, with the area towards the Rhine mouth characterized by pastoral societies in contrast to arable farms to the south and west.Despite Caesar's statement that groups of Belgae settled in Britain before his time, there is no agreement about their identification through archaeology. SE England shares a number of cultural features with northern Gaul, and coins of Gallo-Belgic type are found from c.120 bce. Other features, like cremation burial and wheel-made pottery, are introduced from Gaul throughout the 1st cent. bce; so Caesar's reference is best seen as an indicator of close interrelationships rather than any major migration of people.

Article

Belus/Marduk  

Mary Frazer

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Greek History and Historiography
  2. Near East
  3. Roman History and Historiography
Belus (or Bēlos or Bēlias) is the Latin or Greek rendering of the names of two important Near Eastern gods: Bēl-Marduk, the tutelar deity of the city of Babylon and the head of the Babylonian pantheon from c. 1200 bce; and Baal, a Canaanite god attested in New Kingdom Egypt, the Levant, and at Ugarit. In Greco-Roman literature, Belus is often treated as an ancestor of various mythological dynasties of the Near East or as the founder of Babylon and Babylonian astronomy.In matters concerning Babylon, Belus refers simply to Bēl-Marduk, the tutelary deity of Babylon. In Herodotus’ description of Babylon for example, references to “Zeus-Belus” and “Zeus” (Hdt. 1.181.2; 1.181.3) clearly denote Bēl-Marduk, who replaced Enlil as the god at the head of the Babylonian pantheon c.1200bce and was therefore equated by Greeks with Zeus.1 The “Belus Gate” (Hdt. 3.155.6; 3.158.1) is simply the Greek translation of the Babylonian for “Marduk Gate,” one of eight gates of Babylon’s inner city-wall (.

Article

beneficiarii  

Brian Campbell

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography

Beneficiarii were junior officers in the Roman army below the rank of centurion (see centurio). They were appointed through the favour (beneficium) of their commander (Vegetius, 2. 7), and the title existed at least from the time of *Caesar. In the imperial period a beneficiarius ranked among the principales, who received pay at one-and-a-half times or twice normal legionary rates (see stipendium), and performed administrative duties. Normally a man was promoted beneficiarius after serving as an immunis (a soldier on basic pay who performed a specialist function for which he received exemption from routine duties), and then holding one or more posts in the century—officer in charge of the watch (tesserarius), standard-bearer (signifer), or orderly (optio). More senior grades of beneficiarii were eventually established (commentarienses and cornicularii). The rank of each beneficiarius depended on the status of the official to whose office he was attached (these included senior military officers, procurators, provincial governors, the prefect of the city, the praetorian prefects), and he could often expect promotion to the centurionate.

Article

Berenice(4), daughter of M. Iulius Agrippa I, b. 28 CE  

Edith Mary Smallwood and M. T. Griffin

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Jewish Studies
  2. Roman History and Historiography
Berenice (4) (b. 28 ce), daughter of M. *Iulius Agrippa I, was married to Marcus, brother of Ti. *Iulius Alexander in 41, and then in 46 to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis. From his death (48) she lived with her brother, M. *Iulius Agrippa II. To quieten rumours of incest, she persuaded Polemon, priest-king of Olba in Cilicia, to marry her (53/54), but the marriage did not last long. She played some part in public affairs: in 66 she tried, at first single-handed and then with Agrippa, to prevent the Jewish Revolt, and in 69, in Agrippa's absence, she supported the Flavian cause. *Titus fell in love with her while he was in Judaea (67–70), and when she visited Rome with Agrippa (75) he openly lived with her, perhaps for some years. He deferred, however, to public opinion and did not marry her, and on his accession (79) he dismissed her with regret on both sides (Suet.

Article

Blossius, Gaius  

Ernst Badian

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Philosophy
  2. Roman History and Historiography

Descendant of a prominent anti-Roman family of Hannibalic *Capua and a student of Stoic philosophy (see stoicism), was a friend of Ti. *Sempronius Gracchus (3), after whose death he joined *Aristonicus (1). After Aristonicus' defeat he killed himself. His philosophical influence on both these men is difficult to gauge.

Article

Bocchus I, king of Mauretania and father-in-law or son-in-law of Jugurtha  

Ernst Badian

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
His offer of alliance, early in the Jugurthine War, was rejected by Rome. He later joined Jugurtha, receiving western *Numidia as his price. With Jugurtha, he twice nearly defeated C. *Marius (1), but was finally induced by *Sulla to surrender Jugurtha. He became a ‘friend of the Roman People’ and retained part of Numidia. The surrender of Jugurtha to Sulla, with whom Bocchus maintained a close connection, was depicted on Sulla's signet ring, to Marius' irritation, and in a controversial group of statues dedicated by Bocchus on the Capitol in 91 bce (Plut.Mar. 32. 4). It is shown on a coin of Faustus *Cornelius Sulla, Sulla's son. (See RRC 426/1.)BibliographyRealencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, s.

Article

Bocchus II, king of Mauretania  

Ernst Badian

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
King of Mauretania jointly with *Bogud (his brother), ruling the later Caesariensis. In the Civil War he joined P. *Sittius and supported *Caesar against *Juba I. He was rewarded with part of *Numidia, but lost it after Caesar's death. He supported Octavian's commanders against *Antony's and Bogud, whom he expelled, and he received the undivided kingdom from Octavian.

Article

Bogud, king of Mauretania  

Ernst Badian

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
King of Mauretania jointly with *Bocchus II, ruling the later Tingitana. (Both were sons of *Bocchus I.) He fought for *Caesar in Spain and Africa and played a major part at Munda. After Caesar's death he fought for M. *Antonius (2) against Octavian's commanders in Spain, but his subjects rebelled and Bocchus, who had supported Octavian, seized his kingdom. He joined Antonius in the *Actium campaign and was killed defending Methone against *Agrippa.

Article

Boii  

Edward Togo Salmon and T. W. Potter

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
Boii, Gauls who are traditionally thought to have entered Italy c.400 bce (reputedly via the Great St Bernard) and established themselves between the Po (*Padus) and the Apennines, ousting *Etruscans and *Umbrians. However, it is now clear that the existing population was already predominantly Celtic (see celts). The Etruscan town of *Felsina (later *Bononia (1), mod. Bologna) was one of a number of centres, with richly furnished graves. Defeated by Rome c.282 bce, they signed a 45-year truce. They were conquered again at *Telamon (2) (225) and submitted until *Hannibal's arrival encouraged them anew; with Ligurian and other allies they continued fighting Rome until they were subjugated, massacred, and mulcted of half their territory in 191. Military roads and colonies (Bononia, *Parma, *Mutina) consolidated the Roman victory and the Boii disappeared from Italy through either expulsion or assimilation (Livy 5. 35, 21–35; Polyb. 2. 17 f., 3). Boii are also recorded in Gaul, where they supported the Helvetii, were defeated at *Bibracte (58 bce), and settled on Aeduan territory (Caes.

Article

Boudica  

Louise Revell

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Gender Studies
  2. Roman History and Historiography
Boudica is remembered as the leader of the British tribes during the rebellion against the Romans in 60/61 ce. Her exploits are described in accounts by Tacitus and Dio, although there is some inconsistency between them. There is no direct, contemporary evidence from Britain itself for her life, although the archaeological evidence can provide some context. The slim evidence for her life has not prevented her becoming an iconic figure in British history. Consequently, it could be argued that the real Boudica is less significant than the multiple Boudicas and Boadiceas created in histories and fictional accounts which range from the Roman historians themselves to the Horrible Histories film. This making and remaking of her image has formed an important element in the scholarship about her.The textual evidence for Boudica and the revolt of the southern tribes of Britain is limited and problematic. All the accounts are from outside Britain itself or post-Roman. The fullest accounts are in .

Article

Brennus (1), Gallic chieftain  

Piero Treves

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography

Brennus (1), the Gallic chieftain who traditionally captured and destroyed Rome (in 390 bce or, according to *Polybius (1)'s more probable chronology, 387), and made the famous utterance: ‘Woe to the vanquished’, ‘Vae victis.’ The absence of any archaeological evidence for a destruction-level of this date suggests that his sack of Rome was superficial only.

Article

Brigantes  

Ian Archibald Richmond and Martin Millett

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
The most populous tribe in Britain (Tac. Agr. 17) who held territory in northern England and had their capital at Isurium (Aldborough, North Yorks.). The tribal name is derived from the term ‘high ones’ or ‘hill people’. Their lands included the legionary fortress of *Eburacum (York), forts at Olicana (Elslack?), Cataractonium (Catterick), Vinovium (Binchester), Camulodunum (Slack?), and Rigodunum (Castleshaw?). The major Iron Age oppidum at Stanwick (North Yorks.) was one of their centres and excavation has produced luxury Roman imports of pre-Flavian date. Under Queen *Cartimandua early relations with Rome were friendly; later strife in the royal household compelled annexation by Q. *Petillius Cerialis and *Agricola in ce 71–9 (Tac. Agr. 17, 20). The Pennines and forests of Lancashire and Durham were intersected by garrisoned roads (Tac. Agr. 20) and lead mining began by ce 81 (RIB 2404. 61). In the Ouse basin civil life gave rise to a town at Isurium and widespread villas, as at Well, Castledykes, Gargrave, or Dalton Parlours. The literary and archaeological evidence suggest a confederation of local groups rather than a centralized tribal organization. The eponymous goddess Brigantia won local fame (RIB 627, 628, 1131, 2066, 2091, cf.

Article

Britain, Roman  

Martin Millett

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Ancient Geography
  2. Roman History and Historiography
  3. Roman Material Culture
The province of Britannia. The oldest name of the island known to us is *Albion; the earliest form of the present name, Πρεττανία, was used by the Greeks. The Latin Britannia was in use by the 1st cent. bce. It has no direct Celtic origin and is probably a Latin abstraction from an earlier form.The iron age communities of Britain showed a variety of social organization, although all were agrarian peoples organized into tribal territories dominated by a range of enclosed settlement sites. Many were agriculturally sophisticated and had developed an impressive Celtic art style (see celts). The peoples of the south-east had a long history of shared culture with northern Gaul. The islands were known to the Mediterranean world from at least the 3rd cent. bce. After 120 bce, as trading contacts between Transalpine Gaul and areas to the north intensified, Britain began to receive goods such as wine *amphorae, and Gallo-Belgic coinage was introduced.

Article

Bructeri  

Edward Arthur Thompson and John Frederick Drinkwater

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
A Germanic people living north of the Lippe in the neighbourhood of modern Münster. A powerful people, they were allies of the *Cherusci, whom they assisted in resisting the invasions of Germany by *Germanicus. They also played a prominent part in the *Batavian revolt of ce 69–70, in which their priestess Veleda had much influence.

Article

Bruttedius (Bruttidius) Niger  

John Wight Duff and Barbara Levick

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography

Aedile 22 ce; a gifted orator, pupil of *Apollodorus (5) of Pergamum (Sen. Controv. 2. 1. 35–6), and historian (Sen. Suas. 6. 20 f. reproduces his account of *Cicero's death), he prosecuted C. *Iunius Silanus (2) for extortion aggravated by *maiestas (Tac. Ann.

Article

Bruttii  

H. Kathryn Lomas

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
The inhabitants of the *Calabrian peninsula of Italy from the 4th cent. bce onwards. Earlier inhabitants are named as Oenotrians and Chones (Strabo 6. 1. 4–6), but there is no secure identification with the archaeological cultures of the region. The Lucanians began to make inroads on the region c.390, and it became politically and culturally Oscanized (see lucania; oscans). In c.356, the inhabitants of the area revolted and established themselves as a politically independent group; their name derived from the Lucanian word for a runaway (Diod. Sic. 16. 15; Strabo 6. 1. 4; Just. Epit. 23. 1). They had few cities, their chief ones being *Petelia and *Consentia, and they seem to have been organized into a league, like many Oscan peoples. For most of the 4th and 3rd cents. they pursued an aggressive policy at the expense of the Greek cities along the coast, capturing a number of them. During the Pyrrhic war, they opposed Rome and became Roman allies after *Pyrrhus' defeat in 270.

Article

Bruttius Praesens, Gaius  

Anthony R. Birley

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
Bruttius Praesens, Gaius a senator from *Lucania, was a friend of *Pliny (2). His career began under *Domitian but languished under Trajan until a successful legionary command in the Parthian War (ce 115–16, see *Trajan) brought him to prominence. Governor of Cilicia when Trajan died there in 117, Praesens was favoured by *Hadrian, under whom he was legate of Cappadocia and Lower Moesia, proconsul of Africa, and legate of Syria.

Article

Burebistas  

Ronald Syme and Barbara Levick

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography

Burebistas, king of the Dacians (see dacia), built up an extensive but impermanent empire in the Danubian lands (c.60–44 bce). With a priest called Cecaenos he carried out religious and moral reform in Dacia, pulling up all the vines (Strabo . In *Pannonia he took over the *Scordisci (56–50 bce), who became his mercenaries, and defeated the *Boii and Taurisci (c.45), taking control of the Hungarian plain. He harried the Pontic Greek cities and spread his power into *Thrace. *Pompey negotiated with him for assistance in 48 bce (cf. Syll. 3 . *Caesar was intending to march against him in 44. Burebistas himself was assassinated about this time and his empire broke up into four or five kingdoms, but the ‘Dacian problem’ was still alive under *Augustus.

Article

Burgundians  

John Frederick Drinkwater

Article

Publication History:

Published online:
22 December 2015
Subjects:
  1. Roman History and Historiography
Burgundians, (Burgundiones), a Germanic people who first appear on the Main soon after 250 ce. They had little contact with the Romans until c.406, when they crossed the Rhine and established a kingdom in the province of Germania Prima (see germania) with their capital at Worms. In 436, following an unsuccessful attempt to occupy Belgica Prima, they were subjected to an appalling defeat by Flavius *Aetius and an army of Huns (an event commemorated in the Nibelungenlied).