Extract

The Kalends of January was a festival that involved both official and private celebrations and rituals; its durability as a new year festival into Late Antiquity and beyond is striking.

January 1 was the beginning of the consular year (from the mid-2nd century onwards, codified in the reform of the calendar under Julius Caesar),¹ and marked by the public consultation of the auguries and the procession of the new consuls to the Capitol for the customary vows and sacrifices.² During the imperial period vows of loyalty to the emperor were made by the senate,³ the army,⁴ and provincials on this date.⁵ As part of the extension of the period of Kalends celebration, the making of yearly vota publica, originally on January 1, became fixed on January 3.⁶Strenae (“good luck presents”) were given both to and by the emperor, as well as being shared by individuals more broadly.