Summary

In the medieval Middle East, the spice trade is documented from the middle of the 9th century, but it was based on older trends. In addition to locally produced and sold spices (saffron, cumin, sumac, etc.), new aromatics were imported from Southeast Asia, thanks to a maritime trade that took advantage of the monsoon season. These spices were exchanged for metals or textiles, together with other aromatic materials such as musk, nard, and amber. These spices included cloves, nutmeg, turmeric, and, above all, pepper, which was shipped in increasing quantities over time. These trade ventures were carried out by a limited partnership of an investor and a commercial agent who set out to trade far away, relying on a family and community network, with these actors being mainly Jewish and Muslim. From the 9th to the 11th centuries, the Persian Gulf was the main trade route, with Baghdad as the final destination, from where goods could be sent back to the Levant via the traditional caravan routes. From the beginning of the 11th century, the Red Sea and Egypt emerged as the new import corridor, following in the footsteps of the Romans and maintaining this position until the 15th century. Irrespective of political contingencies, transit initially took place via certain Red Sea ports and the Nile Valley, before the Arab ports and caravan routes began to compete with the Nile route in the mid-14th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries, however, the Persian Gulf route regained its vitality, carrying oriental goods as far as Tabriz. The importance of Egypt was all the greater from the 12th century, when Alexandria became a port of redistribution in the Mediterranean, where Italian merchants were increasingly active. They also settled in the ports of the Levant and then in Tabriz, when spices arrived via the Arab and Iraqi routes.