Summary

Private armies, especially those composed of either mercenaries or filibusters, have been instrumental in the establishment of the modern nation-states of Latin America and have affected national identities and territorial boundaries throughout the region. During the wars of Latin American independence, mercenaries participated in both the Spanish and insurgent armies. Spain incorporated mercenary units in its ranks, including the Irish-only Irlanda regiment, which saw action in Venezuela. On the patriotic side, Simón Bolívar also used foreign mercenaries in his Irish and British Legions. In contrast, filibusters threatened Spanish territories in North America and Latin American nations, unwillingly serving to promote state consolidation as a reaction. Spanish Florida and Texas became the locus for independent private armies hoping to carve out separate kingdoms within Spanish domains. Some filibuster invasions were used as spearheads for diplomatic and military initiatives by the government of the United States to annex Spanish territory. The Texas Revolution (1835–1836), largely the accomplishment of private military intruders, is considered by some scholars as the largest filibuster expedition ever organized. Mexico, Cuba, and Central America were especially frequent targets for filibuster expeditions during the middle of the 19th century. William Walker became the most infamous filibuster, provoking a war in Central America that involved several nations from 1855 to 1857. Though filibusters had diverse motives for breaking their country’s and international law, they often invoked revolutionary ideals such as republicanism, freedom, and democracy to justify their military actions. They often cited the expansionist doctrine of Manifest Destiny to make their case, while US politicians and newspapers supportive of filibustering adventures frequently invoked the Monroe Doctrine to rationalize filibuster attacks and threats against Latin American territory.